---
tags:
  - systems-programming
  - memory
  - operating-systems
  - computer-architecture
---

# The kernel

Within the [hierarchy of the OS](Basic_model_of_the_operating_system.md), the
kernel acts as the primary mediator between the hardware (CPU, memory) and
[user](User_Space.md) [processes](Processes.md). Let's look at each of its
responsibilities in greater depth:

- process management
- memory management
- device drivers
- system calls

## Process management

> A process is just another name for a running program. Process management is
> the starting, pausing, resuming, scheduling and terminating of processes.

On modern computers it appears that multiple processes can run simultaneously at
once. This is only because the processor is so fast that we do not detect
changes. In fact access to the CPU is always sequential. The sequence in which
multiple programs are allowed to access the CPU is managed by the kernel.

> Consider a system with a one-core CPU. Many processes may be _able_ to use the
> CPU, but only one process can actually use the CPU at any given time...Each
> process uses the CPU for a fraction of a second, then pauses, then another
> process uses it for a fraction of a second and so on... (_How Linux Works:
> Third Edition_, Brian Ward 2021)

This process of the CPU shuffling between multiple processes is called _context
switching_.

The role of the kernel in facilitating this, is as follows:

1. CPU runs process for a time slice based on its internal time. Then hands
   control back to the kernel (kernel mode)
2. Kernel records current state of CPU and memory. This is necessary in order to
   resume the progress that was just interupted.
3. The kernel executes any tasks that arose in the last timeslice executed by
   the CPU (e.g. collecting data from I/0)
4. Kernel then analyses the list of processes that are ready to run next and
   chooses one.
5. Kernel prepares memory for this new process and prepares the CPU.
6. Kernel tells CPU how long the time slice for the new process will last.
7. Kernel switches the CPU into user mode and hands control of CPU to the
   process.

## Memory management

During the context switch from CPU to user space, the kernel allocates memory.
It has the following jobs to manage:

- Keeping its own private area in memory for itself that user processes cannot
  access
- Assigning each user process its own section of memory
- Managing shared memory between processes and ensuring the private memory of
  processes is not accessed by others
- Managing read-only memory
- Allowing for the use of disk space as auxiliary memory

> Modern CPUs include a
> [memory management unit](Virtual_memory_and_the_MMU_in_Linux.md#the-memory-management-unit-mmu)
> which provides the kernel with **virtual** memory. In this scenario, memory
> isn't directly accessed by the process instead it works on the assumption that
> is has access to the entire memory of the machine and this is then translated
> into a map that is applied to the real memory and managed by the kernel.

## Device drivers

Devices are managed by the kernal and are not accessible directly via user
space, since improper usage could crash the whole machine. There is little
uniformity between devices and as a result drivers are needed. Thes are kernl
code that enable different OS kernels to access and control the devices.

## System calls

Syscalls are what enable programs to start and are required for the acts of
opening, reading and writing files. System calls in Linux are typically managed
via C.

In Linux there are two particularly important system calls:

- `fork()`
  - When a process calls fork, the kernel creates a nearly identical copy of
    this running process
- `exec()`
  - When a process calls exec it passes a program name as a parameter. Then the
    kernel loads and starts this program, replacing the current process.

Example with a terminal program like `ls`:

> When you enter `ls` into the terminal window, the shell that's running inside
> the terminal window calls `fork()` to create a copy of the shell, and then the
> new copy of the shell calls `exec(ls)` to run `ls`. (_Ibid._)

## Controlling processes

In Linux we can view, kill, pause and resume processes using [ps](Processes.md).
